MAHENDRA GAUR
B.E., P.G.D.M, LL.B.
ADVOCATE
B-90, SARASWATI MARG,
BAJAJ NAGAR, JAIPUR-302015
T/FAX 0141-2705901, PHONE: 09829059018
mahendragaur@gmail.com
GREY PAPER II - JAIPUR (INDIAN OIL) FIRE: DISATER MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Section 2 of The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines ‘Disaster’ as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from either natural or man made causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering, or damage to and destruction of property or damage to or degradation of environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area.1
DISASTERS CAN BE DEFINED IN DIFFERENT WAYS:
A disaster is an overwhelming ecological disruption occurring on a scale sufficient to require outside assistance;
A disaster is an event located in time and space which produces conditions whereby the continuity of structure and process of social units becomes problematic;
It is an event or series of events which seriously disrupts normal activities;
The magnitude of the effects of the event will be viewed differently.
DISASTERS ARE CLASSIFIED IN VARIOUS WAYS
Natural disasters and Man made disasters
Sudden disasters and Slow onset disasters
The dividing line between these types of disasters is imprecise ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MAN MAY EXACERBATE NATURAL DISASTERS.
DISASTER MEANS SUDDEN OR GREAT MISFORTUNE
Although experts may differ in their definitions of disaster, many public health practitioners would characterize a disaster as a "sudden, extraordinary calamity or catastrophe, which affects or threatens health".
DISASTERS INCLUDE
FIRES
EARTHQUAKES
SEVERE AIR POLLUTION (SMOG)
HEAT WAVES
EPIDEMICS
BUILDING COLLAPSE
TOXICOLOGICAL ACCIDENTS, (E.G. RELEASE OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES)
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS
EXPLOSIONS
CIVIL DISTURBANCES
WATER CONTAMINATION
FOOD SHORTAGES
TORNADOES/HURRICANES/FLOODS/SEA SURGES/TSUNAMIS
SNOW STORMS/LANDSLIDES
EFFECTS OF MAJOR DISASTERS
DISASTERS throughout history have had significant impact on the numbers, health status and life style of populations.
Deaths
Severe injuries, requiring extensive treatments
Increased risk of communicable diseases
Damage to the health facilities
Damage to the water systems; Food shortage
Population displacements
HEALTH PROBLEMS COMMON TO ALL DISASTERS
Social reactions
Communicable diseases
Climatic exposure
Mental health
Damage to health infrastructure
DISASTER RESPONSE
OBJECTIVES
Appropriate use of technology to prevent much of death, injury, and economic disruption resulting from disasters
Morbidity and mortality resulting from disasters differ according to the type and location of the event requires specialized response.
In any disaster, prevention should be directed towards reducing
1) Losses due to the disaster event itself
2) Losses resulting from the Mismanagement of disaster relief.
THEREFORE, THE PUBLIC HEALTH OBJECTIVES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT CAN BE STATED AS FOLLOWS:
1. Prevent unnecessary morbidity, mortality, and economic loss resulting directly from the disaster.
2. Eliminate morbidity, mortality, and economic loss directly attributable to Mismanagement of disaster relief efforts.
NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE PROBLEM
Morbidity and mortality, which result from a disaster situation, can be classified into four types:
1. Injuries,
2. Emotional stress,
3. Epidemics of diseases,
4. Increase in indigenous diseases.
THE RELATIVE NUMBERS OF DEATHS AND INJURIES DIFFER ON THE TYPE OF DISASTER: -
INJURIES usually exceed deaths in explosions, typhoons, hurricanes, fires, famines, tornadoes, and epidemics.
DEATHS frequently exceed injuries in landslides, avalanches, volcanic eruptions, tidal waves, floods, and earthquakes.
DISASTER VICTIMS often exhibit emotional stress or the "DISASTER SHOCK" SYNDROME. The syndrome consists of successive stages of shock, suggestibility, euphoria and frustration.
Each of these stages may vary in extent and duration depending on other factors.
EPIDEMICS are included in the definition of disaster; however, they can also be the result of other disaster situations.
DISEASES, which may be associated with disasters, include
specific food and/or water borne illnesses (e.g., typhoid, gastroenteritis and cholera),
vector borne illnesses (e.g. plague and malaria),
diseases spread by person-to-person contact (e.g., hepatitis A, shigellosis)
Diseases spread by the respiratory route (e.g., measles & influenza, Swine flu H1N1).
The environmental sanitation, disease surveillance, and preventive medicine can lead to a significant reduction in the threat of epidemics following disaster.
Immunization programs are rarely indicated as a specific post disaster measure.
A disaster is often followed by an increase in the prevalence of diseases indigenous to the area if there is disruption of medical and other health facilities and programs.
Morbidity and Mortality from Mismanagement of Relief
Ideally, attempts to mitigate the results of a disaster would not add to the negative consequences;
However, there have been many instances in which inappropriate and/or incomplete management actions taken after a disaster contributed to unnecessary morbidity, mortality, and a waste of resources.
Many of the Causalities and much more of the Destruction occurring to natural disaster are due to ignorance and neglect on the part of the individuals and public authorities.
MANY OF THE MISMANAGEMENT PROBLEMS TEND TO RECUR.
Physicians and nurses have been sent into disaster areas in numbers far in excess of actual need.
Medical and paramedical personnel have often been hampered by the lack of the specific supplies they need to apply their skills to the disaster situation.
In some disasters, available supplies have not been inventoried until well after the disaster, resulting in the importation of material which is used or needed.
In a study of past disaster mismanagement problems and their causes, these problems were categorized as follows:
1. Inadequate appraisal of damages
2. Inadequate problem ranking2
3. Inadequate identification of resources3
4. Inadequate location of resources
5. Inadequate transportation of resources
6. Inadequate utilization of resources4
An effective plan for public health and other personnel during a disaster would outline activities designed to minimize the effects of the catastrophe.
These efforts can be summarized as closely situation analysis and response; the two types of activities are interrelated.
Although many relief workers may be needed to obtain surveillance information, analyze the data, provide relief services, evaluate results, and provide information to the public5, it is essential that a single person with managerial experience6 be placed in absolute charge of the entire disaster relief operation.
Following a disaster, the desire to provide immediate relief may lead to hasty decisions which are not based on the actual needs of the affected population. The disaster relief managers can determine the actual needs of the population and make responsible relief decisions. Reliable information must be obtained on problems occurring in the disaster stricken area, relief resources available and relief activities already in progress. For this, a surveillance system must be set up immediately7.
The objective of Surveillance in a disaster situation is to obtain information required for making relief decisions.
The specific information required would vary from disaster to disaster, but a basic, three -step processes includes:
1) Collect data,
2) Analyze data,
3) Respond to data.
ASK FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:-
What problems are occurring?
Why are they occurring?
Where are problems occurring?
Who is affected?
What problems are causing the greatest morbidity and mortality?
What problems are increasing or decreasing?
What problems will subside on their own?
What problems will increase if unattended?
What relief resources are available?
Where are relief resources available?
How can relief resources be used most efficiently?
What relief activities are in progress?
Are relief activities meeting relief needs?
What additional information is needed for decision making?
After answering such questions one can carry out the third part, i.e., planning an appropriate Response to the situation described in the surveillance data. In developing this plan one will decide what types of relief responses are appropriate and what the relative priorities are among the relief activities.
This 3-step process of Data Collection, Analysis and Response can be described as a closed feedback system involving re-evaluation of relief needs and their effects.
SURVEILLANCE FOLLOWING A DISASTER EVOLVES IN PHASES:
1. Immediate Assessment
2. Short term assessment
3. Ongoing Surveillance
IMMEDIATE ASSESSMENT
The object of this phase of surveillance is to obtain as much general information as possible and as quickly as possible.
THE MOST BASIC INFORMATION NEEDED AT THIS POINT IS THE FOLLOWING:
1) The geographical extent of the disaster-stricken area,
2) The major problems occurring in the area,
3) The number of people effected.
This information can be obtained by whatever means seems most efficient. Listening carefully and asking questions is the best way to begin. An Arial survey may be useful in defining the geographical extent of the disaster-stricken area and in observing major damage and destruction. Census data can be examined to determine how many people previously lived in the disaster-stricken area and thus were at risk.
HOSPITALS8, CLINICS, AND MORGUES, which were in operation, may be able to obtain numbers of known deaths and injuries. It is useful to determine the most frequent causes of deaths and types of injuries in order to predict whether demands for medical care will be increasing or decreasing. Some problems likely to occur after a disaster can be predicted according to past experience with that particular type of disaster. For example, experience has shown that disruption of water supplies9 has often been a problem following earthquakes. New types of disasters, such as chemical emergencies and nuclear accidents10, still present many unknown problems.
SHORT-TERM ASSESSMENT
The short-term assessment involves more systematic methods of collecting data and is likely to result in more detailed reliable information on problems, relief resources, and relief information on problems, relief resources and relief activities in progress.
One way to organize data collection during this phase of assessment is to divide the disaster-stricken area into smaller areas or "blocks" to be surveyed simultaneously by different workers or teams of workers. Simple reporting mechanisms (formats) can be developed and workers sent out to survey the different areas and report at a specified time.
The following is a list of Information, which may be needed in order to make relief decisions
The geographical extent of the affected area as defined by streets11 and other clear boundaries.
The number of persons known to be dead. The estimated number of persons severely injured requiring medical care, possibly according to age group, sex, and type of injury or medical problem. Location and condition of health facilities, estimates of medical personnel, equipment's and supplies available.
Estimated number of homes destroyed, homes uninhabitable, and homes, which are still habitable. Condition and extent of water and food supply.
Condition of schools, churches, temples and other public buildings etc. and also condition of roads, bridges, communication facilities and public utilities.
Description of relief activities already in progress (E.g. search and rescue, first aid, food relief etc).
ONGOING SURVEILLANCE
Depending on the factors above, Short-Term Assessment12 may take 5-6 hours or up to 2-3 days. ASAP relief priorities should be determined; and full scale relief activities initiated. Once appropriate relief is in progress, surveillance becomes an ongoing system. When ongoing surveillance information is analyzed new problems may require attention, coordination with different agencies to prevent duplication of relief efforts.
A relief plan developed during any of the surveillance cycle may include some or all of the following activities:
Rescue of victims
Disposal of human bodies, and solid waste
Provision of on-site emergency medical care
Elimination of physical dangers (fire, gas leak etc)
Evacuation of the population (nuclear and chemical emergencies)
Provision of off-site preventive and routine medical care
Provision of water, food, clothing, shelter
Disposal of human waste
Control of vector born diseases
MASS CASUALTY MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT OF MASS CASUALTIES IS DIVIDED INTO THREE MAIN AREAS
1. PRE-HOSPITAL EMERGENCY CARE
Search and Rescue
First Aid
Field Care
Stabilization of the victims
Triage13
Tagging
2. HOSPITAL RECEPTION AND TREATMENT
Organizational structure in the hospital with a disaster management team consists of senior officers in the medical, nursing and administrative fields
Standardized simple therapeutic procedures followed
3. RE-DISTRIBUTION OF PATIENTS BETWEEN HOSPITALS
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS14
The objectives of the disaster preparedness is to ensure that appropriate systems, procedures and resources are in place to provide prompt, effective assistance to disaster victims, thus facilitating relief measures and rehabilitation services.
Disaster preparedness is an ongoing, multi-sectoral activity to carry out the following activities;
Evaluate the risk of disasters15.
Adopt standards and regulations
Organize communication, information and warning systems
Ensure coordination and response mechanisms
Adopt measures to ensure that financial and other resources are available for increased readiness and can be mobilized in disaster situations.
Develop public education programs
Coordinate information sessions with news media
Organize disaster simulation exercises that test response mechanisms
For the Health Sectors Disaster Preparedness plan to be successful, clear mechanisms for coordinating with other sectors and The Health Disaster Coordinator is in charge of preparedness activities and coordinating plans with:
Govt. Agencies
Foreign Relations- UN, UNICEF, WHO & other international agencies
NGO’s- Red Cross etc.
Those responsible for power, communication, Housing, water services etc.
Civil Protection agencies-Police, Armed Forces
EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS
AGENTS, DISEASES AND OTHER THREATS
1. Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, Floods, Cyclones, Typhoons, Tsunamis;
2. Bio-Terrorism Agents: Anthrax, Plague, Smallpox;
3. Chemical Emergencies: Ricin16, Phosgene17, Bromine18, Sarin19;
4. Radioactive Emergencies:
5. Mass Trauma: Explosions, Blasts, Burns, Injuries
6. Recent Outbreaks and Incidents: Bird flu, SARS, West Nile Virus, Mad Cow Disease, H1N1 Virus;
It is virtually impossible to prevent occurrence of most Natural Disasters, but it is possible to minimize or mitigate their damage effects. Mitigation measures aim to reduce the Vulnerability of the System [e.g. by improving & enforcing building codes etc.] Disaster prevention implies complete elimination of damages from a hazard, but it is not realistic in most hazards. [e.g. Relocating a population from a flood plain or from beach front]
MEDICAL CASUALTY could be drastically reduced by improving the Structural Quality of Houses, Schools, and Public or Private buildings, SAFETY OF HEALTH FACILITIES, Water Supply, Sewerage System etc. Mitigation complements the Disaster Preparedness and Disaster Response activities.
A SPECIALISED UNIT WITHIN THE NATIONAL HEALTH DISASTER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM SHOULD COORDINATE THE WORKS OF EXPERTS IN THE FIELD OF:
Health, Public Health & Hospital Administration
Public Policy
Water Systems
Engineering & Architecture
Planning, Education etc.
Civil Defense
Armed Forces
Fire Fighting
The Mitigation Program will direct the following activities
1. Identify areas exposed to Natural/Man-made Hazards and determine the vulnerability of key health facilities and water systems
2. Coordinate the work of Multi Disciplinary teams in designing & developing building codes and protect the water distribution from damages. Include Disaster Mitigation Measures in the planning and development of new facilities.
3. Hospitals20 must remain operational to attend to disaster victims. Identify priority hospitals and critical health facilities that comply with current building codes and standards.
4. Ensure that mitigation measures are taken into account in a facility’s maintenance plans.
5. Inform, sensitize and train21 those personnel’s who are involved in planning, administration, operation, maintenance and use of facilities about disaster mitigation. Promote the inclusion of Disaster Mitigation in the curricula of Professional training institutes, such as MNIT,
TECHNICAL HEALTH PROGRAMS
Treatment of injured
Identification and disposal of dead bodies
Epidemiological surveillance and disease control
Basic sanitation and sanitary engineering
Health management in shelters or temporary settlements
Training health personnel and the public
Logistical resources and support
Simulation exercises/Mock Exercises
i. Desktop simulation exercises [war games]
ii. Field exercises
iii. Drills designed to impart skills
EPIDEMIOLOGIC SURVEILLANCE AND DISEASE CONTROL: Natural disasters may increase the risk of preventable diseases due to adverse changes in the following areas
Population density
Population displacement
Disruption and contamination of water supply and sanitation services
Disruption of public health programs
Ecological changes that favor breeding of vectors
Displacement of domestic and wild animals
Provision of emergency food, water and shelter in disaster situation
THE PRINCIPLES OF PREVENTING AND CONTROLLING COMMUNICABLE DISEASES AFTER A DISASTER ARE TO22;
Implement as soon as possible all public health measures to reduce the risk of disease transmission.
Organize a reliable disease reporting system to identify outbreaks and to promptly initiate control measures.
Investigate all reports of disease outbreaks rapidly. Early clarification of the situation may prevent unnecessary dispersion of scarce resources and disruption of normal progress.
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Post disaster environmental health measures can be divided into two priorities
1. Ensuring that there are adequate amounts of safe drinking water, basic sanitation facilities, disposal of excreta, waste water and solid wastes and adequate shelter.
2. Providing food protection measures, establishing or continuing vector control measures, and promoting personal hygiene.
Water Supply
§ Alternate water sources
§ Mass distribution of Disinfectants
Food Safety
Basic Sanitation and Personal Hygiene
Solid Waste Management
Vector Control
Burial of the Dead
Public information and the Media
EVALUATION
In the case of disaster management, the Evaluator will be looking at the “actual" verses the "desired" on two levels, i.e. the overall outcome of disaster management efforts and the impact of each discrete category of relief efforts. (Provision of food, shelter, management of communications etc)
A critical step in the management of any disaster relief is the setting of objectives, which specify the intended outcome of the relief.
The general objectives of the disaster management will be the elimination of unnecessary morbidity, mortality and economic loss directly and indirectly attributable to mismanagement of disaster relief.
The comparison of the "actual" with "desired" is the first critical step of evaluation. If the objectives were met, those who have participated in the relief have demonstrated that they have accomplished what they set out to do.
On the other hand, if the objectives were not met, it is desirable for those conducting the evaluation to continue with the evaluation process, identify the reasons for the discrepancy and suggest corrective action.
SIMULATED DISASTER PREPAREDNESS OPERATIONS should be undertaken to test the various components before actual need arise.
EVALUATION OF THE HEALTH DISASTER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
Evaluation of the preparedness program
Evaluation of the mitigation measures
Evaluation of the training
EXISTING KNOWLEDGE THAT MIGHT REDUCE THE UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF DISASTERS IS OFTEN NOT APPLIED.
Hurricane/Tornado/Cyclone warning systems.
Legislation preventing building in the flood prone areas23
Requirement of protective cellars/shelters in disaster prone areas.
A Seismic housing code for earthquake-prone area.
Strict procedural code followed to prevent Nuclear, Toxicological and Chemical disasters.
Early warning systems and Disaster preparedness which will help to minimize morbidity, mortality and economic loss.
Disasters have resulted in significant morbidity, mortality and economic loss. Public health is concerned with two objectives in disaster management;
the elimination of the preventable consequences of the disaster
The prevention of losses due to disaster mismanagement.
APPROPRIATE DISASTER RELIEF FOLLOWS A SPECIFIC PATTERN:
Gathering information on the situation
Analysis of this information
Developing and implementing an appropriate response
THIS PATTERN OCCURS AT VARIOUS LEVELS:
IMMEDIATE ASSESSMENT,
SHORT-TERM ASSESSMENT
ONGOING ASSESSMENT,
Through study of the past disasters, their effects and their relief efforts [what has been effective and what have been mismanaged] better plans are now available for effective disaster management as well as for the reduction of preventable losses.
The disaster proneness varies widely from State to State.
The country will have to pay more attention towards creating public awareness and preparedness in respect of people living in known disaster prone areas.
Special training is required to the medical, paramedical, voluntary workers in the relief and rescue work.
Any Disaster is an emergency situation and the health sector alone cannot tackle it in isolation.
It must have Coordination with the local community, civil defense, army, police, FIRE BRIGADE and with various governmental and non-governmental bodies including voluntary organizations like Red Cross.
FAILURE ANALYSIS: to be added.
RECOMMENDATIONS: to be added.
References:
1. DR.S.GOPALAKRISHNAN, Professor, Dept. of Community Medicine,
2. Wikipedia
3. Disaster Management & Relief Department, Government of Rajasthan http://www.rajrelief.nic.in/
4. The Disaster Management Act, 2005
1 Calamitous, distressing, or ruinous effects of a disastrous event (such as drought, flood, fire, hurricane, war) of such scale that they disrupt (or threaten to disrupt) critical functions of an organization, society or system, for a period long enough to significantly harm it or cause its failure. It is the consequences of a disastrous event and the inability of its victims to cope with them that constitute a disaster, not the event itself. Although there is no universally accepted definition of a disaster, the following observation by the US disaster relief specialist Frederick C. Cuny (1944-1995) comes close, "A situation resulting from an environmental phenomenon or armed conflict that produced stress, personal injury, physical damage, and economic disruption of great magnitude." The definition adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) terms a disaster as "The result of a vast ecological breakdown in the relations between man and his environment, a serious and sudden (or slow, as in drought) disruption on such a scale that the stricken community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside help or international aid." The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) describes it as "An occurrence of a natural catastrophe, technological accident, or human caused event that has resulted in severe property damage, deaths, and/or multiple injuries." Dr. Kathleen J. Tierney (Director, Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware) puts the matter in a different perspective: "Many people trying to do quickly what they do not ordinarily do, in an environment with which they are not familiar."
2 The Petroleum Depot Fire has not been identified by any of the Districts in Rajasthan in their Disaster Management Plan.
3 The lack of Fire Fighting Resources with Indian Oil, Hindustan Petroleum, Bharat Petroleum, Airport Authority, Nagar Nigam and JDA were noticeable. As per Mr. Gopal Prasad Gupta, President, Rajasthan Builders & Promoters Association, they have contributed over Rs. 15 Crore to the kitty of Nagar Nigam towards fire safety of Multi Storied Buildings; however, the funds are misappropriated towards salary and allowances of the staffs.
4 Indian Oil Corporation Limited failed to use the fire fighting resources.
5 There was no regular bulletin disseminating information on disaster on any of the local TV channels.
6 As all kinds of disasters require immediate rescue and Medical Relief, thus Vice-Chancellor Rajasthan University of Health Sciences, Jaipur should be in-charge of Disaster Relief Management. All major Hospitals should be nodal centre for Disaster Relief Management.
7 The CGM BSNL and MOBILE SERVICE PROVIDERS must be part of Disaster Relief Management team to establish communication facilities or help lines, if required.
8 One of the most atrocious ‘Disaster Management Decision’ taken by the district administration was to close down all Petrol Pumps in five kilometer area without making alternative arrangement for supply of Diesel to the Hospitals which were running on DG sets in the absence of electricity supply.
9 The Public Health Engineering Department must have a ‘Disaster Management Plan’. One of the actions could be to have under ground/above ground storage tanks in addition to overhead tanks. There must be parallel arrangement for supplying water directly from tube well into the domestic water supply line.
10 KOTA, RAWAT BHATA must have disaster management plan to deal with such situations.
11 Either we should do away with naming the streets with names of persons living or dead, or alternatively should have a parallel system of streets and avenues so that even a first timer to the city in a rescue team can find his way.
12 The assessment should be immediately put in public domain to (a) avoid panic and (b) sourcing help like rare blood group donors and services of specialists.
13 Triage (pronounced /’triɑʒ/) is a process of prioritizing patients based on the severity of their condition. This rations patient treatment efficiently when resources are insufficient for all to be treated immediately. The term comes from the French verb trier, meaning to separate, sort, sift or select. There are two types of triage: simple and advanced. The outcome may result in determining the order and priority of emergency treatment, the order and priority of emergency transport, or the transport destination for the patient, based upon the special needs of the patient or the balancing of patient distribution in a mass-casualty setting.
14 The Disaster Management Act, 2005 envisages that every State Government, in turn, is to establish a District Disaster Management Authority for every district in the State with the District Collector as the Chairperson and such number of other members, not exceeding seven. The District Authority is to act as the district planning, coordinating and implementing body for disaster management and take all measures for the purposes of disaster management in the district in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National Authority and the State Authority. However, the information on JAIPUR District Disaster Management Authority is missing from the state website. http://www.rajrelief.nic.in/ddmplan/ddmp.htm
15 SHOCKINGLY FIRE FROM AN OIL DEPOT WAS NOT IDENTIFIED AS POTENTIAL DISASTER.
16Ricin (pronounced /’raɪ sɨn/) is a protein that is extracted from the castor bean (Ricinus communis). It can be either a white powder or a liquid in crystalline form. Ricin may cause allergic reactions, and is toxic, though the severity depends on the route of exposure. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) gives a possible minimum figure of 500 micrograms (about half a grain of sand) for the lethal dose of Ricin in humans if exposure is from injection or inhalation.
17Phosgene is the chemical compound with the formula COCl2. This colorless gas gained infamy as a chemical weapon during World War I, and is also a valued industrial reagent and building block inorganic synthesis. In low concentrations, its odor resembles freshly cut hay or grass. Some soldiers during the First World War stated that it smelled faintly of May Blossom. In addition to its industrial production, small amounts occur naturally from the breakdown of chlorinated compounds and the combustion of chlorine-containing organic compounds.
18Bromine (pronounced /’broʊmiːn/ BROH-meen or /’broʊmɨn/ BROH-min, from Greek: βρῶμος, brómos, meaning "stench (of he-goats)"), is a chemical element with the symbol Brand atomic number 35. A halogen element, bromine is a reddish-brown volatile liquid at standard room temperature that is intermediate in reactivity between chlorine and iodine. Bromine vapors are corrosive and toxic. Approximately 556,000 metric tonnes were produced in 2007. The main applications for bromine are in fire retardants and fine chemicals.
19Sarin, also known by its NATO designation of GB, is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a nerve agent. As a chemical weapon, it is classified as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations in UN Resolution 687. Production and stockpiling of Sarin was outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993.
20 All hospitals must necessarily b equipped with Diesel Generating sets and keep stock of diesel for minimum seven days.
21 HCM (RIPA) should not only train Government Servants but also citizens about disaster mitigation
22 Looking at important role of health services in post disaster management, all
23 Despite experiencing Disaster in 1981 floods and periodic noises by people, media, courts; the civil administration controlled by land mafia has allowed construction of houses and Multi Storied flats in Amani Shah Nala.
No comments:
Post a Comment